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"kNCIENT HISTORY 
SYLLABUS 

FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



BY 

A COMMITTEE ON THE NEW ENGLAND 
HISTORY TEACKERS' ASSOCIATION 



ALBERl^ FARNSWOklH, Chairman 
PHILIP P. CHASE WILLIAM D. GRAY 

ELLEN S. DAVISON JESSE M. LAW 

RUTH B. FRANKLIN MARGARET McGILL 



D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 



BOSTON 



NEW YORK 



CHICAGO 



AN ANCIENT HISTORY 
SYLLABUS 

FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



BY 

A COMMITTEE ON THE NEW ENGLAND 
HISTORY TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION 



ALBERT FARNSWORTH, Chairman 
PHILIP P. CHASE WILLIAM .D. GRAY 

ELLEN S. DAVISON JESSE M. LAW 

RUTH B. FRANKLIN MARGARET McGILL 



D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON ,NE\V YORK CHICAGO 






Copyright, 1920, 
By D. C. Heath & Co. 



C(^f 15(920 
©CI,A576878 



INTRODUCTION 

In 1916 the Committee on History in Schools of the American 
Historical Association requested the New England History 
Teachers' Association to prepare a "fuller definition of the require- 
ments in Ancient History." A committee was appointed and 
this syllabus is the result of its work. 

This syllabus is intended to serve as a logical outline and 
guide for both student and teacher. It also serves to emphasize 
the main topics and furnishes a perspective of the entire course. 
It contains a series of topics, a brief analysis of the points in- 
volved in each of these topics, and, what is perhaps the most 
valuable feature of the syllabus, suggestions as to the teaching 
points to be kept in mind by the instructor. A brief bibliography 
for teachers and a selected list of books for students aim to bring 
the reader in touch with recent literature. Numerous references 
to source material and secondary works are included in the out- 
line. These references represent the judgment of many teachers. 

Where possible the student should be supplied with a copy 
of the syllabus. If conditions are such that this is not feasible, 
the teacher may dictate such a portion of the syllabus as is 
necessary for the daily lesson. 

Too much importance cannot be attached to the study of 
geography. Nothing serves better to anchor history than an 
exact knowledge of the location of cities, battles, boundaries, etc. 
A study of physiography will be found of great assistance in 
understanding the forces which have molded history. Such 
books as N. S. Shaler's Man and the Earth, and Ellen C. Semple's 
American History and its Geographic Conditions will be found 
very useful in this connection, and will aid the student to under- 

3 



4 INTRODUCTION 

stand the debt history owes to science. There are many ex- 
cellent outline map books on the market, such as the Ivanhoe 
Series, Atkinson, Mentzger Co., and the McKinley Outline maps, 
McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia. The student should 
be requested to fill out these outline maps and if possible to pre- 
pare sketch maps, especially in examinations, or with the aid of 
written data to construct a map. 

Not enough use is made of photographic material in the study 
of history. All of the better texts contain valuable pictures. 
There are also many series of photographs on the market: the 
University Prints, the Perry Prints, etc. 

Books, syllabuses, maps, notebooks, and pictures should be 
used in the study of history. If at the beginning of a course in 
history a number of recitation periods are spent in explaining 
to the class the proper use of text books, etc., much valuable time 
will be gained as a result. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR TEACHERS 

The following list of books is intended primarily for 
teachers, though of course no rigid line can be drawn between 
books useful for teachers and those for pupils. This bibli- 
ography is not intended to be exhaustive, nor is it designed 
for specialists and research workers. The busy teacher 
needs a practical list and one easily accessible, but at the 
same time one of sound scholarship. Some works, especially 
in the field of Oriental history, are useful for occasional con- 
sultation and illustrations rather than for continuous reading. 

Oriental History 

Breasted, J. H.: Amient Times. Ginn & Co. 

Breasted, J. H.: History of The Amient Egyptians. Scribners. 

GooDSPEED, G. S.: History of Babylonia and Assyria. Scribners. 

Hall, R.: Ancient History of the Near East. Methuen. 

Jastrow, M.: Civilization of the Babylonians and Assyrians. Lippincott. 

Kent, C. F, : History of the Hebrew People. Scribners. 

King, L. W. : History ofSumer and Akkad. Chattoo and Windus. 

King, L. S.: History of Babylon. Chatto and Windus. 

Maspero, G. : Dawn of Civilization. Appleton. 

Maspero, G. : Struggle of the Nations. Appleton. 

Maspero, G. : Passing of the Empires. Appleton. 

Myers, J. L. : The Dawn of History. Henry Holt & Co. 

Rogers, R. W.: History of Babylonia and Assyria. Eaton & Mains. 

Greek History 

Baikie, J.: The Sea Kings of Crete. Macmillan. 
Blumner, H. : The Home Life of the A ncient Greeks. Cassell. 
BoTSFORD AND Sihler: Hellenic Civilization. Columbia University Press. 

5 



6 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

Bury, J.: History of Greece. Macmillan. 

Cooper, L. (Editor) : The Greek Genius a>id Its Influence. Yale Univ. 

Press. 
CuRTius, E. : History of Greece. Scribners. 
Dickinson, L. : The Greek View of Life. Doubleday, Page & Co. 
Fairbanks, A. : Handbook of Greek Religion. Amer. Book Co. 
Ferguson, W. S. : Greek Imperialism. Houghton Mifflin Co. 
Fowler, H. and Wheeler, J. L.: Greek Archce'oldgy. Amer. Book Co. 
Gardner, P.: Principles of Greek Art. Macmillan. 
Greenidge, a. H. J.: Greek Contsitutional History. Macmillan. 
GoMPERZ, J. : Greek Thinkers. Murray. 

Harrison, J.: Introductory Studies to Greek Art. T. Fisher Unwin. 
Harrison, J.: The Religion of Ancient Greece. Open Court Pub. Co. 
Ha WES, H. & C. : Crete, the Forerunner of Greece. Harpers. 
Holm, A. : Greek History. 4 vols. Macmillan. 
Livingston, R.: The Greek Genius and its Meaning to Us. Clarendon 

Press. 
Mahaffy, J. : Social Life in Greece. Macmillan. 
Mahaffy, J.: Greek Life a>id Thought from Alexander to the Roman 

Conquest. Macmillan. 
Mahaffy, J. : Old Greek Life. Amer. Book Co. 
Mahaffy, J. : What Have the Greeks Done for Modern Civilization? 

Putnam. 
Mahaffy, J.: The Story of Alexander's Empire. Putnam. 
Marshall, J.: History of Greek Philosophy. Macmillan. 
Mayor, J. B.: Ancient Philosophy. Pitt Press, Cambridge. 
Murray, G. : Rise of Greek Epic. Oxford Univ. Press. 
Murray, G.: Euripides, and His Age. Holt, N. Y. 
Murray, G.: History of Greek Literature. Heinemann. 
Pater, W.: Greek Studies. Macmillan. 
Schuchardt, C: Schliemann's Excavations. Macmillan. 
TsovNTAS and Manatt: The Mycenaan Age. Houghton Mifflin Co. 
ZiMMERN, A. : The Greek Commonwealth. Clarendon Press. 

Roman History 

Abbott, F. F. : Roman Political Institutions. Scribners. 
Abbott, F. F. : Society and Politics in Ancient Rome. Scribners. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR TEACHERS 7 

Abbott, F, F.: The Common People of Ancient Rome. Scribners. 

Arnold, W.: Roman Provincial Adminislralion. Macmillan. 

Dill, S.: Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius. Macmillan. 

Dill, S.: Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire. 
Macmillan. 

Ferrero, G.: The Greatness and Decline of Rome. Putnam's.* 

Fowler, H. : History of Roman Literature. Appletons. 

Fowler, W.: The Religious Experience of the Roman People. Mac- 
millan. 

Frank, T. : Roman Imperialism. Macmillan. 

Friedlander, L.: Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire. 
Dutton & Co. 

Greenidge, a.: History of Rome. Methuen. 

Greenidge, A.: Roman Public Life. Macmillan. 

Hadley, J. : Introduction to Roman Law. Appleton. 

Hardy, E. : Christianity and the Roman Government. Macmillan. 

Heitland, W.: Roman Republic (Unabridged edition). Cambridge 
Univ. Press. 

How, W. & Leigh H. : History of Rome to the Death of Ccesar. Long- 
mans. 

Hulsen, C: The Roman Forum. Loescher & Co., Rome; Stechert, 
N. Y. 

Ihne, W.: Early Rome. Scribners. 

Ihne, W.: History of Rome. Longmans. 

Jones, H. S. : Roman Empire. Putnam's. 

Jones, H. S.: Companion to Roman History. Clarendon Press. 

Lanciani, R.: Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. 

Lanciani, R. : Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. 

Mackail, J.: Latin Literature. Scribners. 

Mommsen T. : A History of Rome. 5 vols. Scribners. 

Mommsen, T.: The Provinces of the Roman Empire. 2 vols. Scribners. 

Morey, W.: Outlines of Roman Law. Putnam. 

Pais, E.: Ancient Legends of Roman History. Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Pater, W.: Marius the Epicurean. Macmillan. 

* The works of Ferrero should be used with caution. 



8 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

Pelham, H. : Outlines of Roman History. Putnam. 

Pelham, H. : Essays on Roman History. Oxford Press. 

Platner, S.: Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome. Allyn & 

Bacon. 
Smith, W.: Dictionary of Antiquities, Geography and Biography. Murray, 

London. 
Strong, E.: Roman Sculpture from Augustus to Constantine. Scribners. 
Walters, H..: Rofnan Art. Methuen. 

Every teacher ought to make use of the illustrations in Perrot and 
Chipiez's History of Ancient Art. Chapman and Hall and Hachette 
et Cie, Paris (French edition). The different volumes deal with dif- 
ferent countries and with both Oriental and Classical art. 

The following short list of books in foreign languages will 
be found useful, as it comprises works of a general character 
which contain in themselves full bibliographies and references : 

Meyer, E.: Geschichte des Alterthums. Cotta, Stuttgart. 
Beloch, J.: Griechische Geschichte. Triibner, Strassburg. 
Schiller, H' : Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit. Perthes, Gotha. 
Daremberg, Saglio: Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et Romaines, 

Hachette et Cie, Paris. 
Pauly Wissowa: Real-Encyclopddie. Hetzler, Stuttgart. 
Niese, B.: Romische Geschichte. Beck, Munich. 
Marquardt-Mommsen : Romische Staatsverwaltung atui Romisches 

Staatsrecht. Leipsig. 



SUGGESTED READINGS FOR ANCIENT 
HISTORY CLASSES 

This list of books represents the best judgment of many 
teachers of Ancient History. It offers a wide range of 
choice standard works, source books, biographies, works of 
travel, and historical novels. It aims to meet the needs of 
pupils of the first year as well as those of the more mature 
student. 

The pupil should read at least 500 pages of serious matter 
each year. The teacher should assign a definite number 
of pages each week and require a written report. This 
insures careful reading. The same selection may be given 
to the entire class, provided the school is well equipped 
with supplementary material. For this type of reading, 
standard works, biography, and source material are recom- 
mended. 

The value of source material for secondary school students 
has been greatly overestimated. Many of the source books 
are scrappy. They try to include something from all the 
important sources, and, as a result, too little is given from 
any one source to make the reading of great value. The 
source readings in the syllabus represent the judgment of 
many teachers. Definite reference has in most cases been 
given. 

There is another type of book which is of an inspirational 
character. Books of travel and historical novels are val- 
uable in creating an interest in certain pupils, and often serve 

9 



lo ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

to stimulate a love for historical reading. Such reading 
should not be tested by formal reports; it is enough that the 
pupil state that the book has been read. 

Abbott, Evelyn: Pericles and the Golden Age of Athens. Putnam. 
Allinson, F. G. and Allinson, Anne: Greek Lands and Letters. 

Houghton Mifflin Co. 
Barrows, S. J.: The Isles and Shrines of Greece. Little, Brown & Co. 
Beesly, a. H.: The Gracchi; Marius and Sulla. Longmans. 
Bailey, Cyril: The Religion of Ancient Rome. Open Court Pub. Co. 
Bulwer-Lytton, Edward: The Last Days of Pompeii. Little, Brown 

&Co. 
Church, A. J. : Pictures from Roman Life and Story. Appleton. 
Church, A. L. and Oilman, Arthur: The Story of Carthage. Putnam. 
Clodd, Edward : The Story of Primitive Man. Appleton. 
Crawford, F. L.: Ave Roma Immortalis. Macmillan. 
Creasy, E. S.: The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World from Marathon 

to Waterloo. Dutton. 
Davis, W. S.: The Influence of Wealth in Im,perial Rome. Macmillan. 
Davis, W.S.: A Victor of Salamis. Macmillan. 
Davis, W. S.: Readings in Ancient History. AUyn S: Bacon. 
Davis, W. S. : A Friend of CcEsar. Macmillan. 
Davis, W. S.: A Day in Old Athens. Allyn & Bacon 
Ebers, G.: Uarda. Appleton. 
Ebers, G.: An Egyptian Princess. Appleton. 
Emerton, Ephraim: A)i Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages. 

Ginn & Co. 
Fairbanks, A.: Greek Mythology and Religion. 
Fling, F. M.: Source Book of Greek History. Heath, 
Fowler, W. W. : The City-State of the Greeks and Romans. Macmillan. 
Fowler, W. W.: Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero. Macmillan. 
Fowler, W. W. : Julius CcBsar. Putnam. 
Gayley, C. ISL: The Classic Myths in English Literature and in Art. 

Ginn & Co. 
Grant, A. J.: Greece in the Age of Pericles. Scribner's. 
GuLiCK, C. B.: The Life of the Ancient Greeks. Appleton. 
Herbertson, C. G.: Business Life in Ancient Rome. Amer. Book Co. 



READINGS FOR CLASSES ^ ii 

HoLBROOK, Florence: Cave, Mound, and Lake Dwellers. Heath. 

HoPKiNSON, L. W.: Greek Leaders. Houghton & Mifflin Co. 

How, W. W.: Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage. 
London, Secby. 

Jackson, A. V. W.: Persia, Past and Present. Macmillan. 

Jebb, R. C: Greek Literature. Amer. Book Co. 

KiNGSLEY, Charles: Hypatia. Dutton. 

LovELL, Isabel: Stories in Stone from the Roman Forum. Macmillan. 

Mahaffy, J. P. : Old Greek Life. Amer. Book Co. 

Mahaffy, J. P.: The Story of Alexander's Empire. Putnam. 

Marden, p. S. : Greece and the yEgean Islands. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

Maspero, Gaston: Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria. Appleton. 

MuNRO, D, C: Source Book of Roman History. Heath. 

Oman, Charles: Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic. Long- 
mans. 

Powers, H. H.: The Message of Greek Art. 

Preston and Dodge: The Private Lives of the Romans. Sanborn. 

Robinson, C: Days of Alcibiades. Longmans. 

SiENKiEWicz, Henry: Quo Vadis. Little, Brown & Co. 

Strachan-Davtdson, J. S.: Cicero, and the Fall of the Roman Republic. 
Putnam. 

Tarbell, F. B.: A History of Greek Art. Macmillan. 

Thallon, I. C. : Readings in Greek History. Ginn. 

TozER, H. F.: Classical Geography. Amer. Book Co. 

Tucker, T. G.: Life in Ancient Athens. Macmillan. 

Tucker, T, G.: Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul. Mac- 
millan. 

Wallace, Lew.: Ben Hur. Harper. 

Webster, Hutton: Readings in Ancient History. Heath. 

Wheeler, B. I.: Alexander the Great. Putnam. 

Wright, J. H.: Masterpieces of Greek Literature. Houghton Mifflin 
Co. 



OUTLINE OF ANCIENT HISTORY 

TOPIC I 
Introduction to the Study of Ancient History 

1. The nature of history. Meaning of the term. 

2. Pre-literary history. Revelations of archaeology. Develop- 
ment of man during the stone, bronze and iron ages. A brief 
survey may be made at this point of the work of archaeologists, 
as Sir John Evans; of geologists, as Lyell; anthropologists, as 
Tylor, in reconstructing the prevailing ideas of the origin of man 
and making certain the vast antiquity of the human race. 

3. Development of a conception of time. Origin of a calendar. 

4. What early man accomplished. Domestication of plants and 
animals; use of metals; fire; art of writing. 

5. The mastery of the art of writing. Centers of origin of writing. 

6. The races of man. 

7. The physiography of the ancient world. The immense 
period which precedes the beginnings of civilization should be 
given adequate treatment in order that the student may have a 
clear idea of the long history of man. At this point the teacher 
may give an account of the past history of the earth; of its 
probable origin; its relation to the sun and planets; its long 
period of cooling; the vast geologic ages; and the rise and fall 
of plant and animal kingdoms millions of years before the 
appearance of man. The student will be helped in comprehending 
this marvelous story by such devices as the time table in Robin- 
son's The New History. For a study of the nature of history, 
including a discussion of pre-Hterary history, the teacher is referred 
to an article in the Encyclopedia Americana (19 19 edition) by 

13 



14 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

H. G. Barnes entitled, "History — Its Rise and Development." 
Most suggestive in connection with these topics is an article by 
H. G. Wells entitled "History is One" (Ginn & Co.). Stress 
should be laid on the small area of the earth's surface involved 
in the ancient world, and the influence of geography in shaping 
early civilization. 

TOPIC II 
The Earliest Centres of Civilization. The Oriental World 

1. Physical characteristics of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates 
Valleys. Protection of Egypt by the sea; Influence of the inun- 
dations of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates rivers; Food supply 
readily procured; The Arabian desert; The mountain regions 
to the north of the Tigris-Euphrates VaUey; The two rivers and 
the caravan routes were the arteries of traffic. 

2. Political history. The Old Kingdom (Memphis) ; The uni- 
fication of the Nile Valley under a centralized form of govern- 
ment with a despotic ruler and a great body of officials; The 
pyramids; The Middle Kingdom (Thebes); A feudal state; 
Conquests in the upper Nile; Internal improvements; Contact 
with iEgean lands, especially Crete; The New Empire (Thebes); 
A mihtaristic and imperialistic state; Temples; Colossal Statues; 
Obelisks; Constant wars draining the vitality of people; Use of 
mercenary troops. Follow this brief treatment of the political 
history by a study of Egyptian culture: Writing; Calendar; 
Sciences; Agriculture; Art; Religion; Classes of society; Sources 
of Egyptian history. 

3. Babylonia. Early history; Unification of the country 
under Hammurabi; Law code; Cuneiform writing; Literature; 
System of weights and measures; Astronomy; Overthrow of 
Babylonia. 

4. Syria. The influence of geography on the history of Syria; 
Phoenician trade and industries; Trade routes; Colonies; Alpha- 



THE ORIENTAL WORLD 15 

bet; Transmitters of civilization; Hebrews; Arameans; Rela- 
tions of Arameans with the Jews; Importance of Damascus; 
Early wanderings of Hebrews; Settlement in Egypt; Conquest 
of Palestine; Saul; David; Solomon; Division and captivity; 
Liberation by Persia; Teachings of Prophets; Hebrew litera- 
ture; Religious contributions. 

5. Assyria. Development of military science and imperialism; 
Assyrian culture; Sculpture with briUiant colors; Architecture; 
Great libraries; Invasion of Chaldeans and new Babylonian 
empire. >,. 

6. Medo-Persians. Political history; The rise of Persia; Vic- 
tories of Cyrus; Fall of Lydia under Croesus; Conquests of Cam- 
byses and Darius; Organization of empire; Invasion of Scythia; 
Culture of the Persians. 

Oriental history should be presented primarily for its influence 
on the classical world and also on modern Europe. The idea of 
continuity of influence can be brought out by emphasizing and 
viewing in retrospect Oriental history as part of the story of the 
Mediterranean World. For example, Egypt created a system 
of bureaucratic administration which passed from the early 
Pharaohs to the Ptolemies and from them to the Roman Empire. 

The contributions of each of these peoples to civilization 
should be given special attention. The influence of the Egyptians 
in religion, industrial and fine arts, science, mathematics, writing 
and Hterature; that of the Babylonians in industrial arts, religion 
and Hterature; that of the Phoenicians as "transmitters of civili- 
zation;" that of the Hebrews in reHgion; and that of the Persians 
in creating an imperial organization are important contributions 
to the world. The chronology of Breasted's Ancient Times may 
be followed for this period. Considerable use should be made of 
the map showing the earhest centers of civilization and its gradual 
expansion. Time limits forbid an intensive study of Oriental 
history; on the basis of five periods per week the subject may be 
completed in fifteen or twenty recitations. 



i6 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

TOPIC III 
The ^gean Civilization 

1. Cretan Culture. Impulse from Egypt; Archaeological evi- 
dence; Work of Evans at Cnossus; Government; Sculpture; 
Writing; Cretan sea power. 

2. The Mycenean Age. Excavations of Schliemann; Royal 
tombs and palaces; Social life; Causes of decline; Invasions of 
the Greeks. 

The iEgean civilization should be linked with that of Egypt 
and Asia as one of the fountain heads of European civilization. 
Its importance has, perhaps, been exaggerated, and in spite of its 
fascinating character two or three recitations will be sufficient 
time to devote to it. 

TOPIC IV 
The Beginnings of the Greeks 

1. The physical characteristics of Greece. Petty size; Access 
to sea; Lack of navigable rivers; Soil of low fertility; Abundance 
of building material; Mountains; Openness to east; Products; 
CUmate; Effect of physical surroundings on people. 

2. Advance of Greeks from Danube valley about 2500 B.C. Great 
confusion; Overthrow of Mycenean culture by Dorians and 
other late invaders. 

3. Legends of Greece. Value of legends ; Oriental immigrants — 
Cecrops, Cadmus, Pelops; Legendary heroes — Heracles, Theseus, 
Minos; Legends of National exploits — Argonautic expedition; 
The Trojan War. 

4. The Homeric Age (about 1000-700 B.C.) PoHtical organiza- 
tion; Society; Religion; T\it Iliad dmdi Odyssey. 

The geography of Greece cannot be overemphasized. To 
know the geography of Greece is, in large measure, to know its 



GREECE TO THE PERSIAN WARS 17 

history. Stress should be laid upon the fundamental physical 
features and their influence in shaping Greek history. It is 
well at this point to survey the geography of the entire Medi- 
terranean World, noting the chief rivers, mountains, etc. 

The prehistoric migrations of the Greek tribes, such as the 
Thessahans and Dorians, is a doubtful subject and should be 
studied mainly in its results, i.e. in determining the historic 
ethnology and political geography of Greece and Greek Asia 
Minor. 

The legends are to be read, not studied. The two great epics, 
the Iliad and the Odyssey, are to be studied mainly to illustrate 
the characteristics of Homeric life. Four significant passages 
should be read: Thersites {Iliad II, 211); Parting of Hector and 
Andromache {Iliad VII, 369); The Phoenician traders {Odyssey 
XV, 403); Odysseus in the lower world {Odyssey XI, i). 

TOPIC V 
Greece to the Persian Wars 

1. Greek religion and religious institutions. Greek gods and 
goddesses; Conception of a future life; The Delphic oracle and 
its influence; The Delphic Amphictyony. The Greek Games: 
Origin of the games; The influence of the games; The "First 
Olympiad." 

2. The Greek city-state. Organization of the city-state; Its 
Influence on Greek history; Important city-states. 

3. Rise of Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. The govern- 
ment of Sparta; Exclusiveness of citizenship; Military training; 
Social classes; The introduction of iron discipline blights the 
aesthetic qualities of the Spartans; Growth of Spartan power 
by conquests and aUiances; Organization of the Peloponnesian 
league. 

4. Development of Athens. Early history; Brief sketch of 
Athenian constitution which should include Draco's reforms; 



i8 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

Solon's reforms; an account of the tyranny under Pisistratus; and 
the reforms of Cleisthenes. 

5. Greek colonization {about 750-550 B.C.). Causes; Char- 
acter and organization of colonies; Comiection with Delphic 
Oracle; Mother cities; Most famous colonies; Relation of colony 
to mother city; Extent of Hellas at close of period of colonization; 
Influence of colonization on trade, industry and extension of 
Greek civilization. 

6. Intellectual Advance. Literature; Selections from Hesiod, 
Alcaeus; Sappho; and Tyrtoeus. Philosophy may be treated as 
the beginning of science; Thales. Orders of architecture and 
temple plans; Early types of sculpture and existing remains — 
"Apollos" and ".Egina IVlarbles." Cohesive force of religious 
institutions; Spiritual and ethical values of new forms of wor- 
ship; Orphic and Eleusinian mysteries; The Panathenaic festival 
at Athens. 

In this period of Greek history emphasis should be placed upon 
territorial expansion and the forces making for and against unity. 
Greek religion, the national games, literature and art were forces 
making for unity as against the disintegrating forces of geography 
and intense individualism. The city-state should be emphasized; 
it may be compared with a modern city. Dickinson's The Greek 
View of Life will be found helpful in connection with the Greek 
city-state. Its influence on Greek government, character, and 
art should be noted. 

Greek colonization is an important subject. The relation of 
the Greek colony to the mother city should be stressed; the more 
important colonies learned, as also the reasons why the Greeks 
settled in particular locahties. The colonies of enduring im- 
portance such as Massalia should be noted. The colonies became 
centers of Greek influence. 

Athenian history before Solon can hardly be too briefly treated. 
Our real knowledge of this period is very scanty. Solon con- 
tributed the essential factors in the creation of democracy, so 



THE STRUGGLE WITH PERSIA 19 

that his reforms should receive careful attention. The tyrannies 
are important everywhere, especially at Athens, and may be 
studied in connection with Pisistratus. 

The study of the Hterature, art, and reUgion of this period 
will reveal the larger community of the Greek world and correct 
the impression that Greek civiUzation was compressed in one 
or two cities hke Athens and Sparta. At the same time it will 
prepare the student for an understanding of the great struggle 
with Persia — a struggle which involved the whole Greek world. 

TOPIC VI 
The Struggle with Persia. (500-479 B.C.) 

I. Causes and Events. The Ionian Revolt. The Persian ex- 
peditions. Battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis Himera, 
and Plat^a. Great leaders: Miltiades; Themistocles; Aristides; 
and Pausanias. Congress of Corinth. 

The Persian Wars mark the beginning of the great struggle 
between the East and the West. Attention should be drawn 
to the fact that these wars lasted for about 300 years, approxi- 
mately from 500 to 300 B.C. The results of the first period of 
these wars, which lasted from 500 to 479 B.C., should be strongly 
emphasized. The wonderful progress of the following period may 
be traced, in large measure, to the impetus toward unity, the 
breadth of vision, the higher ideals, and the exhilaration of success 
which the great victory produced. 

The development of Persia may be reviewed at this point. The 
battles need not be studied in detail; attention being given, how- 
ever, to Marathon as a decisive battle and to the battle of Salamis 
as a good example of the influence of sea power. For the career 
of the Greek leaders L. W. Hopkinson's Greek Leaders will be 
found useful. It may be suggested that the student read some 
selection from Herodotus: (The Battle of Marathon, VII, 108- 
117), (The Passage of the Hellespont, VII, 44-46 and 55-56), 



120 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

(Leonidas at Thermopylae, VII, 201-228), and from ^schylus: 
(The Battle of Salamis in The Persians), 

TOPIC VII 
The Age of Pericles. (About 479-431 B.C.) 

1. The Athenian empire. Formation of the Delian confederacy 
and its expansion by Cimon's ^gean campaigns; Organization 
of the League; Extent of League; Contrast with Peloponnesian 
League; Maintenance of League; Transformation into the 
Athenian empire; Policy of Pericles; Failure of continental 
federation; Thirty years' truce. 

2. The Periclean democracy. Decline in power of archons; 
Appointment by lot; Eligibility of third class to archonship; 
Increasing political power of the generals; Loss of authority by the 
Areopagus and leadership of council of 500; Citizen juries; Lim- 
itation of citizenship; Payment for public service; Conduct of 
trials; Revenues and expenditures; Limitations of Athenian 
democracy. 

3. Intellectual and artistic Athens. "Athens the School of 
Hellas;" Plan of the Acropolis; Plan of Greek temple; Special 
study of Parthenon; Study of Erectheum, Theseum, and Propylaea; 
Sculptures of the Parthenon; "Zeus" of Phidias; Literature; 
Herodotus; ^Eschylus; and Sophocles. 

4. Social conditions. Comparison of education of Athenian 
boy with that of Spartan; Position of women; Slavery; Houses; 
Dress; Modern features of life in Periclean Age. 

The Periclean Age is one of the great epochs in the history of 
civihzation. This period marks the chmax of Greek achieve- 
ment; here are fixed these characteristics which are outstanding. 
Literature and art had scarcely so flourished before, and but rarely 
have they done so since. 

There are four important topics: first, the political events 
which result in the failure of Pericles to make Athens a great 



THE AGE OF PERICLES 21 

land empire; second, the further extension of democracy; third, 
art and Hterature; and, finally, social conditions. The political 
history may be briefly sketched, emphasis being placed upon 
the fact that the most promising opportunity for Hellenic unity 
had failed. The Periclean democracy was the purest of the 
ancient world, but at the same time its Hmitations should not be 
overlooked. 

The wonderful art and literature of this period should be care- 
fully studied. The student will be aided in this by a study of 
pictures and models. Such books as H. H. Powers' The Message 
of Greek Art give the spirit of the Greek contribution in this field. 
The Greek Genius and Its Influence, Select Essays and Extracts, 
edited by Lane Cooper, is an excellent summary of the significance 
of Greek Literature. 

TOPIC VIII 

The Peloponnesian War. (431-404 B.C.) 

I. Causes aiid Events. Events leading to outbreak of war; The 
plague; Funeral oration of Pericles; Battles of Pylos, Dehum, 
and Amphipolis; Peace of Nicias; Argive alliance; Sicilian 
expedition; Battles of Cyzicus, Notium, Arginusae, and ^Egospo- 
tami; Entrance of Persia into the War; Downfall of Athens. 

The Peloponnesian War is the story of the decline and fall of 
the Athenian Empire. It should be studied as a civil war which 
was to the Greek mind the most terrible of all wars. Emphasis 
should be placed upon the imperiahsm of Athens as the great 
factor in causing the war. It naturally divides into three parts: 
the period to the Peace of Nicias; the second period through the 
Sicilian expedition, and the third to the end of the war in 404 B.C. 

The war produced the great historian, Thucydides. Portions of 
his work, the Plague at Athens, the Funeral Oration and the 
Sicilian expedition, may be read by the student. It mav be well 
at this point to compare Herodotus with Thucydides. Not much 
attention should be paid to the details of the war except, per- 



22 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

haps, the Sicilian expedition. Special attention should be given 
to the career of Alcibiades, the destroyer of Athens. The other 
leaders, as Cleon, Brasidas, and Nicias should receive only passing 
mention. The reentrance of Persia into the /Egean after the 
lapse of over half a century and the military genius of Lysander 
should be noted. 

TOPIC IX 

Strife among the Greek States. (404 338 B.C.) 

1. Spartan Supremacy (404-371 B.C.). Pohcy of Sparta in 
controlhng her empire; The incident of the Thirty Tyrants at 
Athens; The relations of Sparta and Persia; Change in the atti- 
tude toward Persia due to the expedition of Cyrus and the march 
of the Ten Thousand; War with Persia; Persian cooperation with 
the enemies of Sparta in Greece; Revival of Athens; Peace of 
Antalcidas; Seizure of Cadmeia in Thebes; Revolts against the 
cruelty and tyranny of Sparta; Resistance of Thebes; Athenian 
naval league; Battle of Leuctra, 371 B.C. 

2. Brief supremacy of Thebes (371-362 B.C.). Invasions of 
Epaminondas in the Peloponnese; Pelopidas in Northern Greece; 
Arcadian federation; Revival of Messenian independence ; Failure 
of Theban pohcy; Battle of Mantinea; Failure of the city-state; 
Confusion and disorder in Greece. 

3. Rise of Macedon. Philip the inheritor of Greek political 
experience; Development of an hereditary monarchy; Expansion 
of Macedon; Increase in economic power (gold mines); Forma- 
tion of an efhcient army; Conflicting interests of Phihp and the 
Greek states; Opposition of Demosthenes; Rival parties in 
Greece; Policy of Philip; the Sacred War; Defeat of Greeks at 
Chaeronea, 338 B.C.; Superiority of a centraUzed power to a loose 
alliance. 

Much of the pohtical history of the fourth century may be 
sketched. The cruel and oppressive policy pursued by Sparta 
should be noted. The battle of Leuctra is significant in the 
development of new mihtary tactics. The period of Theban 



MERGING OF THE EAST AND WEST 23 

supremacy may be regarded as a reaction against Spartan op- 
pression. The narrowness of Theban policy and its dependence 
on Epaminondas should be emphasized as leading directly to the 
downfall of Theban supremacy in the battle of Mantinea. This 
battle should also be considered in a broader sense as bringing 
to an end the idea of city supremacy in Greece. The independ- 
ence of Hellas passes away forever in the battle of Chaeronea. It 
should be made clear that this battle made possible the exten- 
sion of Hellenic civilization beyond the narrow borders of Hellas. 
Attention should be given to the career of Phihp : — his great 
genius is sometimes lost sight of because of the achievements 
of his son, Alexander. Philip represents the imperial ideal; his 
great opponent, Demosthenes, is the last great prophet of Greek 
freedom. 

In the study of the culture of the fourth century attention 
should be given to the note of individualism, the change from 
poetry to prose and the development of oratory and philosophy. 
Attention should be drawn to the fact that there is a change in 
the character of art due to the demand for realism and contact 
with the Orient. 

The career of Socrates may be reviewed at this point, and 
also the teachings and influence of the Sophists. It may be 
suggested that the student read portions of Euripides, perhaps, 
from his Alcestis; from Aristophanes' The Knights; from Xeno- 
phon's Anabasis; and from Demosthenes' The Third Philippic 
and The Oration on the Crown. Attention should be drawn to 
The Dialogues of Plato. 

The sculpture of Praxiteles, Scopas and Lysippus may be 
studied by means of illustrative material. 

TOPIC X 

Merging of the East and West 

I. Alexander the Great. Early training and education; Acces- 
sion to throne; Conquest of Persian Empire; The battles of 



24 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

Granicus, Issus; The conquest of Egypt; The Battle of Arbela; 
The conquest of the Far East; The Indian campaign; The voyage 
of Nearchus. 

The importance of Alexander's work can hardly be exaggerated. 
Students should not be told, as they often are, "that his work 
fell to pieces after his death," — an utterly false statement to 
apply to the man whose career made Hellenistic civilization 
possible. The unstable political condition of Greece should be 
emphasized to explain its easy conquest by Alexander. Note the 
weak condition of the Persian Empire demonstrated by the march 
of the Ten Thousand as a factor leading to its conquest. The 
battle of Granicus opened Asia Minor to Alexander; Issus was a 
blow to the prestige of Persia in Syria. The siege of Tyre was 
important as the destruction of a sea base dangerous to Alexander's 
line of communications. The conquest of Egypt is significant 
largely because of the founding of Alexandria and Alexander's 
assumption of divine honors. Note the decisive character of the 
defeat of Darius at Gaugamela. 

At this point it might be well to review the various periods of 
Greek colonization; that from about 1200-900 B.C., the period 
from about 750-550 B.C.; and colonization of the east made 
possible by Alexander's success. Greek civiUzation was thus 
spread to the Orient. Note the important cities founded, such 
as Alexandria and Seleucia. Emphasize the unifying results of 
Alexander's conquests. 

TOPIC XI 

Age of Monarchical and Federal Combinations 
of Greek City Nations 

1. The dissolution of Alexander's Empire. 

2 . The struggle for unity to the battle of Ipsus. * The Lamian War ; 
Death of Demosthenes; Struggle of Alexander's successors for 
sole power; The militaristic monarchy of Macedon; Naval em- 



FEDERAL COMBINATIONS 25 

pire of Ptolemies; The commercial states of Egypt, Rhodes and 
Pergamon; The empire of the Seleucids. 

3. The Jour Hellenistic monarchies. The Seleucid Empire; 
The Ptolemies in Egypt; The founding of Hellenic cities and the 
spread of Greek culture in the East; The spread of Oriental cults 
to Greece. 

4. Pergamon. The struggle of Attains I with the Celts; 
Pergamon as a rival of Alexandria; Architecture and sculpture 
(Dying Gaul, Pergamon Altar). 

5. Macedon and Greece. The Achaean and /Etolian leagues. 

6. Hellenistic culture. The centers of Hellenistic culture; 
Progress of science; Literature of this period; Art (Laocoon 
Group, Pergamon Frieze, Dying Gaul, Nike of Samothrace, 
Aphrodite of Melos) ; Zeno and Epicurus — influence of these 
systems of thought on Western world. 

Hellenistic civilization should be stressed because of its in- 
fluence on Rome and Europe. It should be clearly brought out 
that Rome was acquainted with Greek civilization chiefly in its 
Hellenistic form. The details of the struggle which resulted in 
the dissolution of Mexander's empire are not important, the 
struggle was decided at Ipsus, leaving four monarchies which were 
finally absorbed by Rome. Emphasize the bureaucratic char- 
acter of the government of Egypt under the Ptolemies. The 
culture of the Hellenistic period may be compared with that of 
the Periclean age. 

With the conquest of the Hellenistic monarchies by Rome 
the student is introduced to Roman history. It cannot be too 
strongly urged that the connnections between the streams of 
Greek and Roman cultures should be shown wherever possible. 
The student often begins the study of Rome as though this civiliza- 
tion dropped from the blue sky and had no connection with Greece. 
It is due in large measure to our teaching history in water-tight 
compartments so that the student completes his training with 
the idea firmly fixed that he has studied English or American or 



26 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

European history as separate blocks. History is a continuous 
process; its streams all merge in the common story of man. 

TOPIC XII 
Rome as a Monarchy. (753-510 B.C.) 

1. The geography of Italy. Size; Mountains; Seas; Gulfs; 
Rivers; Cljmate. 

2. The peoples oj Italy. Settlement of the Italians; the 
Etruscans and Greeks. 

3. The government and religion of early Rome. Legendary 
kings; Servian reforms; Expansion of territory and absorption 
of other peoples; Supposed origin of patricians and plebeians; 
The Latin League; The probable process by which Rome became 
an aristocratic repubUc; The "Religion of Numa." 

The geography of Italy may be contrasted with that of Greece. 
Note its outlook toward the west as one factor in retarding its 
progress and its lack of contact with the centers of civilization. 
The inadequacy of the sources makes it desirable to touch the 
regal period rather lightly. The legends though of doubtful 
authenticity may be read for their literary value and also studied 
in connection with archaeological remains to throw some light on 
the prehistoric age and show how the Romans themselves recon- 
structed their past. This treatment may also be applied to the 
early Republican period, for which good illustrative material 
is found in Livy. The idea of continuity can be brought out by 
teaching that the Roman imperium passed from the kings to the 
consuls, was divided in time among the different Republican 
magistrates, and finally restored in its entirety to the Roman 
Emperor. 

TOPIC XIII 

The Roman RepubUc to 264 B.C. 

I. The struggle for popular rights by the Plebeians. Struggle of 
plebeians to alleviate immediate economic distress; Agrarian 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC iz; 

laws and colonies; Tribunes; Comitia Tributa; Codification of 
laws; The Valerio-Horatian laws; The Canuleian law; The 
Sextian Licinian Laws; Gradual acquisition of curule offices by 
the plebeians; The Hortensian law. 

2. Amalgamation of Italian tribes under Roman leadership. 
Growing hegemony of Rome over Latins; Burning of Rome by 
the Gauls and loss of historic material; Dissolution of Latin 
league. Mastery of central Italy through Samnite wars. 

3. Conquest of Southern Italy in war with Pyrrhus. Contact 
with Greek civiHzation. 

4. Characteristics of Roman government in third century B.C. 

5. Organization of Italy. Military purpose of organization; 
Military roads and colonies; Gradation of rights with the lure of 
promotion for fideUty to Rome; Communities in various degrees 
of dependency. 

6. The '^Puritan Age^' of the first half of the third century B.C. 
High thinking and simple living; Patriotic and religious sense 
developed from conception of family; Simple fare and clothing; 
Clean public life; Sound citizen army organized on basis of 
manipular legion. 

The struggle between the orders should be studied chiefly from 
the view point of its effect on the development of the Roman 
constitution. Economic and social causes certainly were the 
basis of this struggle, but what we are told in the sources in regard 
to the causes is very doubtful and seems to be taken from condi- 
tions that obtained in the struggles of the last century of the 
Republic. The details of the conquest of Italy are unimportant; 
the fact of the conquest and the creation of the Roman-Itahan 
league is of the utmost importance. Note the dominance of the 
curule aristocracy intrenched in the Senate. As far as possible 
comparison should be made with Greek History; for example, 
the struggle between the orders may be compared to the struggle 
between the nobles and commons in Athens. 



28 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 



TOPIC XIV 

The Expansion of Rome over the Mediterranean 
(264-133 B.C.) 

1. The struggle for supremacy in the Western Mediterranean. 
First Punic War; Comparison of Rome and Carthage in ideals, 
spheres of influence and resources; Campaigns in Sicily, Africa, 
and Sicilian Waters; Treaty of Peace. 

2. New factors in positions of Rome and Carthage. Conquest 
of Cis- Alpine Gaul; Seizure of Corsica and Sardinia; Conquest 
of Spain by Carthage; Mercenary revolt. ' 

3. Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.). Causes; Military 
events; Ticinus, Trebia, Trasimene, Cannae, Metaurus, Zama; 
Campaigns m Spain; Generalship of Hannibal; Struggle of 
Rome to maintain a continuous army and to find able generals; 
Imperious attitude in dictation of terms. 

4. Struggle of Rome for the eastern Mediterranean. Status of 
powers in 240 B.C.; Greek leagues and free states; Macedonia 
and Syria; Roman influence in Pergamon and Egypt; Rome's 
motives foi* entering the East; Brief treatment of Macedonian 
wars and war with Antiochus; Conquest of Greece. 

5. Later wars in the West. Fall of Carthage, 146 B.C.; Nu- 
mantine War; Servile wars in Sicily. 

The expansion of Rome over the Mediterranean should be 
treated as the normal result of existing conditions in the Medi- 
terranean. The downfall of Athenian sea power and the de- 
cadence of Egypt made possible the Carthaginian attempt to 
recover the commercial supremacy lost by Tyre. Rome, as 
protector of Italy, was forced into rivalry with Carthage. The 
treatment of these wars, with the exception of the second Punic 
war should be brief. The dramatic character of the war with 
Hannibal and the light it throws on Roman character justify 
giving considerable attention to this struggle. Rome's motives 



EFFECTS OF THE WARS OF CONQUEST 29 

in entering tlie East were to avenge Greek interference in the 
Punic Wars and to preserve the balance of power. The treat- 
ment of these powers by Rome is similar. She moves from 
arbiter to dictator. Her poHcy of aid to weak allies and sub- 
division of large kingdoms is followed by conquest and incor- 
poration. Strong emphasis should be laid on the fact that as a 
result of the conquest of the East, Rome came under direct Hellenic 
influences. The Numantine and Servile wars throw a lurid light 
on Rome's misgovernment of provinces and the evils of slavery. 
The great figures of these wars, Scipio Africanus and Hannibal, 
should receive complete treatment, while the character and career 
of Cato, as typical of the old Rome, should be clearly understood. 
The student should read selections from Livy — The Second 
Punic War (Books XXI-XXII), and from Polybius (VI-ii, 18). 

TOPIC XV 

Effects of the Wars of Conquest upon Rome 

I. Change in government. Prominence of senate -captured by 
capitalists. Weakness of assemblies and frequency of "corrupt 
practices." Use of dictatorship. Evils of Provincial govern- 
ment. Necessity for great border armies. Grouping of classes 
into new poHtical parties. Economic, problems: Latifundia; 
Increase of slaves; Disappearance of free labor and small farming 
class; Congestion of population in Rome; Agrarian agitation to 
satisfy veterans and the landless poor; Rise of Knights; Accumu- 
lation of gold and silver and its effect on prices; Change in 
commercial centers; Luxury and decline of morale; loss of 
Puritanic home life; Public games; Callousness towards public 
corruption; Changes in rehgion; Eastern cults; Greek philos- 
ophy; Opposition of "old school" represented by Cato. 

These topics should receive much more emphasis than the 
march of progress of Roman conquest. Rome's conquest brought 
about a complete change in Roman manners, morale, customs^ 



30 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

and government and sowed the seeds for the revolutionary 
period. 

TOPIC XVI 

The Period of Revolution. (133-31 B.C.) 

1. Causes of the break down of the Roman constitution. Inef- 
ficiency of the senate in foreign affairs; Failure of annual 
consulate in deahng with mihtary affairs and the enforcement 
of domestic legislation; Corrupt and ignorant electorate; Danger 
of revolt in the provinces making necessary large armies and 
commanders with great powers; Insidious doctrine of imperi- 
ahsm; Violation of constitution by well-meaning reformers and 
corrupt politicians. 

2. Expansion of the tribunate under Tiberius Gracchus. Re- 
forms of the Gracchi; Their influence on the policies of the Demo- 
cratic party, Advancement of one-man power through the con- 
sulship of Marius; Successive consulships of Marius gained by 
popularity among soldiers and people through his record in the 
Jugurthine and Germanic wars; Alliance with demagogues with 
a view to gaining power through popular legislation. 

3. The use of the dictatorship by Sulla. Mihtary popularity of 
Sulla gained by service in Jugurthine, Teutonic, ''Social" and 
Mithradatic wars; Sulla's struggle with Marius and the Marian 
party; CoUine Gate; Sulla's constitution. 

4. The illegal coalition of the First Triumvirate. Pompey's 
progress is marked by advance to extraordinary command through 
successes of Sertorian and Gladiatorial wars, and by powers con- 
fered through Gabinian and Manihan laws, and by his reputation 
gained in the Mithradatic wars; The terms of the coaHtion; 
Ultimate disappearance of Crassus. 

5. CcBsar's Gallic campaigns. Alliance of Pompey and Senate. 

6. Civil war (49-45 B.C.). Battles of Pharsalus, Zela, Thapsus, 
and Munda. 

7. Ccesarism at Rome. (45-44 B.C.) Powers of Cassar; 



THE PERIOD OF REVOLUTION 31 

Works of Caesar as a benevolent despot; Economic and political 
reforms in Italy; Reforms in the provinces; Death of Caesar; 
Mark Antony. 

8. Republic or Empire? (44-31 B.C.). Anarchy of 44 B.C.; 
Civil war in Northern Italy; Death of Cicero; Second Trium- 
virate; Battle of Philippi; Gradual estrangement of Antony and 
Octavius; Battle of Actium, a contest for the unity of the Medi- 
terranean World. 

This period should be treated as a readjustment of the ma- 
chinery of government to meet changed conditions, and a great 
militaristic movement in Roman history which moved through 
strong personalities to the culmination in Caesarism of the first 
two rulers of the Julian line. 

The strong personalities of the period demand fuller treatment 
than the Hmits of texts allow. The steps leading toward mon- 
archy should be clearly brought out; for example, the struggle 
between the Gracchi and the Senate heralds a period of revolution ; 
the successive consulships of Marius; the dictatorship of Sulla, 
the passage of the Gabinian and Manilian laws, the first tri- 
umvirate, the "sole consulship" of Pompey, Caesar's dictatorship, 
and the second triumvirate mark successive steps leading to the 
Empire. Oman's Seven Roman Statesmen is valuable for this 
period. 

The Germanic invasion should be viewed as heralding the 
mighty invasions of the fourth and fifth centuries a.d. The 
struggle with the ItaKans is very important, because as a result 
of it Roman citizenship was granted to all the inhabitants of 
Italy and a splendid system of self-governing municipaHties was 
created. In this connection a review of the struggle of the plebs 
to obtain recognition might well be undertaken. 

The conquests of Pompey in the East and the bringing together 
of Rome and Jerusalem are topics of prime importance. Caesar's 
conquest of Gaul is of great importance in the history of Europe. 
It brought France within the pale of Latin civilization. The 



32 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

causes of the decline of the RepubHc should be constantly kept 
in mind, but at the same time it should be made clear that for 
many of these evils the Roman empire was only a partial cure. 

In treating the character of Caesar it is well to steer a middle 
course between the deification of Mommsen and the unduly dis- 
paraging estimate of Ferrero. Heitland's characterization is a 
sane one. 

The period from 44-31 B.C., though much neglected, was 
crucial in the Kfe of Rome. During these years Octavius seems 
to allow Rome to become convinced of her own need of a master. 
The careers of Cicero and Cato the Younger might well be reviewed 
as showing the futility of their policies in this crisis. But this 
failure of their policies should be coupled with a consideration of 
their permanent place in the eyes of later ages as the personifica- 
tions of Repubhcan principles. 

Some attention should be given to Latin literature of the later 
Republic, emphasis being placed on the strong Greek influence. 
It is suggested that the student read Cicero's "Manilian Law," 
and a few selections from Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War. 

TOPIC XVII 
The Early Empire. (30 B.C. to 180 A.D.) 

I. Reign of Augustus. The character and Theory of the 
Principate; Powers of the Princeps; Senate; Magistrates; 
People; Principle of Dyarchy; Lack of law of succession and 
its consequences. 

The administration and reforms of Augustus in Rome and 
Italy: Measures relating to the protection, policing, feeding, etc., 
of Rome; Building in Rome; Measures relating to the protection 
of Italy; Encouragement of municipal life. Read the Res Gestae. 

Social, moral and religious reforms; Caesar worship. 

The provinces under Augustus; The provincial system of 
Augustus; Divisioa of the provinces; Form of government in the 



THE EARLY EMPIRE 33 

Imperial provinces; In the public provinces: Status of Egypt, 
Reasons for. The provincial reforms of Augustus: Establishing 
of a central authority to which the provincial governors were 
responsible; The separation of the financial and executive powers; 
Introduction of salaries and long tenure of office; Creation of the 
census and reforms in taxation. 

The provincial councils: Importance of Caesar worship; Prov- 
inces added to empire by Augustus; Extent of empire at death 
of Augustus; Birth of Christ. • 

The frontiers and the army: The advantage of a consistent 
frontier pohcy, and of a central authority to direct it; Description 
of main frontiers; The creation and organization of a standing 
army; Stationing of troops; Employment of army on pubhc 
works; Importance of army as a civilizing and Romanizing in- 
fluence; Relation between the Romans and the Parthians and 
Germans; Defeat of Varus and consequences. 

Social life and Culture: The friends and advisers of Augustus; 
Society in Rome; Poets and their patrons; Literature (Vergil, 
Horace, and Livy). 

2. The Successors of Augustus. Tiberius: Able provincial and 
financial administration; Crucifixion of Christ; Claudius; Ex- 
tension of citizenship and honors to provincials; Public works; 
Conquest of South Britain. Nero: Encouragement of Hellenism; 
Literature under Nero. Seneca; Burning and rebuilding of 
Rome; Persecution of Christians. Acute conflict between 
Princeps and Senate under these emperors. Read selections from 

Tacitus. 

3. The Year of the Three Emperors and the Period of the Flavians. 
Vespasian and Titus: Vespasian's restoration of law and order 
and his financial reforms; Bufldings of the Flavians; Extension 
of privileges to provincials; Creation of an Italian and provincial 
nobihty; Destruction of Jerusalem and dispersion of Jews: 
Pompei and Herculaneum; Pliny the Younger 's letter to Tacitus on 
the Eruption of Vesuvius, Book VI, 16-20. Domitian; Able 



34 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

provincial administration; Persecution of Christians; Spread of 
Christianity to upper classes. 

Wars: Acquisition of territory, and defenses on the Rhine — 
Danube frontier under the Flavians. 

Flavian art: Portrait sculpture; Arch of Titus. Flavian lit- 
erature; Martial, Pliny the Elder. Some of Martial's epigrams 
in Paul Nixon's A Roman Wit. 

4. The Period from the Accession of Nerva to the Death of Marcus 
Aurelius. 

Trajan: Defenses on northern frontiers; Wars in Dacia and 
the East; New provinces; Able and enlightened administration; 
Buildings (Forum, Column, and Harbor); Provincial adminis- 
tration and policy toward the Christians shown in correspondence 
with PHny (Pliny's letter and Trajan's reply). 

Hadrian: Reaction against the imperialism of Trajan; Sur- 
render of provinces; Frontier defenses and military reforms; 
Creation of a civil service of Knights; Financial reforms; Tend- 
ency towards bureaucracy and despotism; Humane legislation; 
Development of law; Influence of the Jurists; The Edictum Per- 
petuum; Journeys of Hadrian; Encouragement of Hellenism; 
Favors to provincials; Rise in importance of provincials; The 
Jewish war; Buildings of Hadrian (Temple of Venus and Rome, 
Pantheon, Olympieum in Athens); "Short-lived renaissance of 
Greek art " under Hadrian. Latin Literature gives place to Greek. 

Antoninus Pius: Development of law. 

Marcus AureHus: The Meditations, Influence of Stoicism on 
life and law under Empire; Christianity under Marcus Aurelius; 
The rule of the two August! ; Parthian war; The pestilence; 
Wars with the Marcomanni and Quadi; Barbarian coloni. 

5. General topics relating to whole period of Early Empire. The 
evolution of the Principate; Growth of despotism and bureau- 
cracy; Disappearance of the principle of Dyarchy; The develop- 
ment of Roman law; The city of Rome, its appearance and life; 
The dwindling importance of Italy, its approximation to a 



THE EARLY EMPIRE 35 

province; The provinces and their civihzation; The increasing 
importance of the provinces; Hellenistic character of their civiliza- 
tion; Progress of Romanization in the West; Rome the creator 
of city Hfe in the West; Growth of important European cities 
from Roman cities, camps and colonies; Municipal life; De- 
scription of some of the more important cities, as Alexandria and 
Antioch; Buildings and public works in provinces; Classes of 
cities; Main facts in regard to particular provinces, e.g., the 
economic, intellectual and artistic importance of Egypt; Social 
and economic conditions; Communication, travel, and commerce. 
Spiritual and intellectual movements; Christianity; The Oriental 
cults; Philosophy; Education (schools and universities). The 
system of land ownership: Villas; Coloni. 

Symptoms and causes of the coming decline: System of land 
ownership; General lack of science in finance and industry, pro- 
duction and distribution; The insufficient supply of precious metals 
and the drain of these due to the trade with the Far East; Slave 
labor; The paralysis of initiative in the municipalities by the 
interference of the central government; The development of 
municipal offices into financial burdens and the consequent pen- 
alizing of wealth and enterprise; Reckless expenditures on public 
w^orks and charities; Decline of interest in public life and the 
decHne of military spirit among citizens; The pestilence. 

Conjecture has necessarily been employed in the effort to 
determine the "causes for decHne," and most of the traditional 
"causes" have been questioned by one authority or another. 

More attention should be paid to the period of the Empire 
than is given in most textbooks. The time for this may be 
gained at the expense of the early period of Roman history. In 
the early empire stress should be laid upon the reign of Augustus 
and the period of the Flavian and the "Good Emperors." In 
the reign of Augustus these topics should be emphasized: The 
reorganization of the frontiers; The remarkable culture of the 
period. This last topic may be compared with that of the culture 



36 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

of the Periclean age. The provincial system and reforms should 
receive more adequate treatment than is usually given in high 
school textbooks. The remaining Emperors of the Juhan line 
may be lightly treated. The reign of Trajan is important as 
extending the boundaries of the empire and including Dacia 
within the sphere of European civilization. 

The topics on the provinces and their civilization should be 
made as concrete as possible by the use of every form of illustrative 
material — photographs, lantern slides, etc. A good opportunity 
is offered here for the teacher to give specific examples of the 
influence of Roman civilization upon that of Europe. Thus the 
sur\dval, in spite of German intrusions, of the Latin language, of 
Roman law, education, and architecture can be demonstrated. 
The history of France offers an especially good example. It is by 
no means an accident that the country of the ruins of Nimes 
has always been the home of architecture; that the country whose 
Roman schools were famous has always been distinguished for 
its culture, its clarity of thought, and sense of form. 

The topics on the symptoms and causes of the coming decline 
of the Empire may be treated at a later stage of the work if it be 
made clear to the student that the causes of decline haa begun to 
operate at an earher date, some of them, as, for example, the 
decline of agriculture, going back to the time of the Repubhc. 
To the causes given in the topics others should be added if the 
subject is treated at a later stage; the barbarizing of the Empire, 
for example. If Christianity was, as some think, a force of dis- 
solution, it was hardly an important one in the second century. 

The student in studying this subject in a short textbook is 
likely to derive from it an exaggerated impression of the extent 
and intensity of certain evils, an impression of universal misery 
and degeneration. This impression must be corrected by the 
teacher, who must show that these causes were rarely operating in 
their maximum intensity in any one time or place; that there 
were parts of the Empire that enjoyed comparative peace and 



MARCUS AURELIUS TO DIOCLETIAN 37 

prosperity even in the darkest periods, that there never was any 
complete paralysis of agriculture or industry, and that the Eastern 
Empire managed to survive in spite of these evils. 

TOPIC XVIII 

The Period from the Death of Marcus Aurelius to 
the Accession of Diocletian. (180-284 A.D.) 

1. The military monarchy. Growing power of the army; 
Change in its character and discipline; The provincial troops 
succeed to the place of the Italian Preetorians. 

2. Anarchy of the period. Tendency of Empire to break into 
parts, rise of pretenders, especially in Gaul and Palmyra. 

3. Great jurists tinder the Severi. 

4. Edict of Caracalla. 

5. Invasions of German tribes. 

6. Temporary successes of lUyrian Emperors against Germans 
and New Persian Empire offset by confession of defensive 
position of Empire indicated by Aurelian wall at Rome. 

Only the general characteristics of this period need to be studied; 
minor events, details, and personalities may be ignored. Those 
forces which are finally to destroy the Empire are clearly seen. 
The failure to provide for a peaceful succession to the Emperor- 
ship gradually leads to a state of chaos, the picture being relieved 
only now and then by an able emperor, such as Septimius Severus 
and Aurelian. The importance of the influence of the New Per- 
sian empire should be emphasized. 

TOPIC XIX 

The Reorganization of the Empire. The Oriental 
Monarchy. (284-337 A.D.) 

I. Diocletian: Arrangements for succession of Augusti by 
Caesars; The provincial system; Changes in army; Its pro- 
gressive barbarization; Persecution of Christians. 



38 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

2. Constantine: the civil wars. Constantine's partial accept- 
ance of Christianity; Christianity recognized as one of the pubHc 
worships of Rome; Council of Nicaea; Transfer of capital to 
Constantinople. 

In this period an absolute Oriental monarchy is established. 
There is a falling-off of production and revenue combined with 
extravagance in courts and administration. Oppressive taxation, 
high cost of living, Hability and "flight" of curiales and general 
suppression of individual freedom and initiative give plain evi- 
dence of the internal weakness of the Empire. Read Diocletian's 
Edict on the High Cost of Living in F. F. Abbott's Common People 
of Ancient Rome. In the study of the division of the Empire 
emphasis should be laid on the fact that Rome ceases to be the 
residence of the Emperor and Italy becomes a province. 

The legislative and administrative changes of this period are 
for the most part best treated as a whole, without any attempt 
to distribute them between the emperors. It should be noted 
that many of these changes were but the logical culmination of 
tendencies that had long been in operation; thus bureaucracy and 
specialization in government go back to Hadrian, and it was 
apparently early in the third century that the state began to 
regulate membership in the collegia. With regard to the decHne 
in art of this period an exception should be made in favor of the 
wonderful architecture of the times; for example, the baths of 
Diocletian and his palace at Spalato, and the basilica of Constantine. 

TOPIC XX 

The Dissolution of the Empire. The Ancient World 

Partitioned between German and Moslem 

(337-814 A.D.) 

I. The Roman Empire in Relation to its Neighbors. Up to 
395 A.D., this period presents a problem of assimilation; the effect 
on Rome and on her barbarian neighbors of their mutual inter- 



DISSOLUTION OF THE EMPIRE 39 

course is more important than the internal politics of the decadent 
imperial structure. The period following should be shown to be 
one of disorder, due in a measure to the failure of Diocletian's 
plan to ensure peaceful succession to the imperial throne. The 
following points may be noted: The presence of many Germans 
among the Roman people as a result of peaceful penetration; of 
large numbers of Germans as soldiers in the imperial army under 
German commanders. The employment of Germans as imperial 
officials. The first distinct German settlement within the Em- 
pire — the Visigoths in the reign of Valens. Effect on the 
German tribes of contact with civihzation. Respect of Ger- 
mans for Roman civilization. The reunion of the East and 
West under Theodosius. The division of the Empire at the 
death of Theodosius really means the close of the Roman imperial 
period. 

After 395 A.D. emphasis should be on the invaders rather than 
on the invaded, with the exception of a consideration of the 
Byzantine Empire, which can be grouped about Justinian as the 
central figure. The attempt of Justinian to reunite the Empire 
proved futile, but the occupation of southern Italy and Sicily and 
the conquest of the Vandals in Africa, demand consideration in 
view of the legacy of Byzantine culture to the Mediaeval period. 
In connection with Justinian's code of laws attention should be 
drawn to this legacy of Rome to the modern world. Note the 
position of Constantinople as the conservator of Roman institu- 
tions during the dark ages which follow. 

2. The Partitioning of the Empire. The Goths in Italy and 
Spain; Angles, Saxons, and Jutes in Britain; Franks in Gaul and 
on the lower Rhine; Clovis and the union of tribes into a king- 
dom; Extent of his conquests; The manner of extending his 
dominions by gradual spreading rather than immigration; Sig- 
nificance of conversion of Clovis to Roman Christianity in view 
of location and inherent strength; Division of his kingdom among 
his sons introducing an imoortant element of weakness. 



40 ANCIENT HISTORY SYLLABUS 

3. The Huns need be considered only as an incentive to the 
migration of other tribes. 

4. The Moslems. Significance of similarity of race and en- 
vironment upon the founders of three great religions; Brief sketch 
of career of Mohammed; Points of divergence of Mohammedanism 
from Christianity; Immutability of creed; the conquests to 732 
A.D.; Brief study of Saracenic culture; Centers of culture at 
Bagdad, Alexandria, Cordova. 

5. Western Europe after the Germanic Invasion. Partial fusion 
of German and Roman, resulting in the Romance Languages; 
Neglect and destruction of Roman Culture; The organization of 
the Christian church; Development of monasticism; Extension 
of Christianity by missionaries; Civilizing influence of church; 
Growing power of Pope. 

6. The Franks from Clevis to Charlemagne. Extension of ter- 
ritory by successors of Clovis; Founding of the Carolingian line; 
Mayors of Palace; Charles Martel and his defeat of the Moslems 
at Tours; Pippin the Short and his relations with the Lombards 
and Papacy. 

7. Charlemagne. Study Charles the Great as a conqueror, 
statesman and educator; His relations with the Pope. 

In the study of the invasions it is, perhaps, better to concen- 
trate attention upon one or two of the more important ones as 
the Visigothic and Frankish, and briefly to indicate the settle- 
ments of the other invaders. The great civilizing and unifying 
forces represented in the church should receive considerable 
emphasis. The death of Charlemagne furnishes a logical point 
for the conclusion of a year's study of the Ancient World. To 
leave the student in the chaos of the invasions is to leave his mind 
in confusion. The three centuries of disorder caused by the 
invasions of German and Moslem is succeeded in the time of 
Charlemagne by relative order and comparative peace. 



